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Definition of PL/SQL BlockBasically, PL/SQL contains the different blocks to write a code, in another word we can say that the PL/SQL code we cannot execute in a single, so we need a group of code for a single element that we called the block. Normally the block contains the SQL instructions as well as PL/SQL statements. The PL/SQL block structure is predefined and in which we need to write the code in different blocks. The PL/SQL consists of three different types of blocks such as the Declaration section, Execution section, and Exception handling section. As per requirement, we can include the header section into a PL/SQL.
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DECLARATION SECTION BEGIN EXCEPTION END;Explanation
In the above syntax, we use three different sections: the declaration section, execution section, and exception handling section. In the first section we can declare variables, in the second section that begins or we can say that execution section, here we write the executable statement as per requirement and the last section contains the exception handling statement and again it depends on the user requirement.
How block works in PL/SQL?Now let’s see how PL/SQL works as follows.
Basically, there are three different sections as follows.
1. Declaration sectionThis is the first section in the PL/SQL block and it is an optional part in PL/SQL block. In this section, we can declare the variables, exceptions, subprograms, cursor, collections, and different instructions as per the requirement. The declaration section has some important characteristics as follows.
This section is optional, and if no declarations are required, it can be omitted.
If a PL/SQL block is present, this should be the first part.
For triggers and anonymous blocks, this section begins with the term ‘DECLARE.’ This keyword will not be present in other subprograms. Instead, the declaration portion begins after the subprogram name definition.
The execution section should always come after this part.
2. Execution SectionThis is the second section of the PL/SQL block; the execution section always starts with the BEGIN keyword and ends with the END keyword. In this block, we just need to write at least one executable expression even if it is null, which means it is a mandatory section of the PL/SQL block. Some important characteristics of the execution section are as follows.
• The ‘END’ or the Exception-Handling section should come after this section (if present)
3. Exceptional handling sectionNow let’s see some important characteristics of the exception handling section as follows.
There is no reference name given for these blocks.
The term ‘DECLARE’ or ‘BEGIN’ is used to start these blocks.
These blocks can’t be saved for subsequent use since they don’t have a reference name. They must be designed and implemented in the same session.
It can include nested blocks that are either named or anonymous. It may be nested in any block as well.
These blocks can include all three components, with the execution portion being required and the other two sections being optional.
Basically, there are two types of Block in PL/SQL as follows.
1. Anonymous Block: in this block, there is no need to specify the name that means we need to create and use it in the same section as per requirement because an anonymous block is not stored on the server.
ExamplesNow let’s see the different examples of a block in PL/SQL for better understanding as follows.
Let’s see a very simple example of a block in PL/SQL as follows.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON; BEGIN DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Welcome in first PLSQL Block'); END; /Explanation
In the above example, we start to write the block with the BEGIN keyword and end with the END keyword as shown in the above block. Inside the block, we write the statement that contains the execution section of the block. The DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line statement used as an output statement that means here we display the message by using this procedure and execution of block we use forward-slash (/) that instructs SQL * Plus to execute the block. The final output of the above block or procedure we illustrated by using the following screenshot as follows.
Let’s see another example as follows.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON; DECLARE test VARCHAR2(200) := 'Welcome in PLSQL Block'; BEGIN DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(test); END; /In this example we include the declaration section as shown, here we declare the test variable with varchar2 data type and it contains a string message as shown in the above procedure. The remaining code of this example is the same as the above example. The final output of the above block or procedure we illustrated by using the following screenshot as follows.
Now let’s see how we can include the exception section in the procedure as follows.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON; DECLARE val_e number; BEGIN val_e := 10/0; EXCEPTION when zero_divide then dbms_output.put_line('Divide by zero error'); END; /Explanation
By using the above example we try to handle the exception in the block. In the execution section, we write the expression for the divide by zero exception with the EXCEPTION keyword as shown in the above example. After execution of this block, it shows a message like Divide by zero error. The final output of the above block or procedure we illustrated by using the following screenshot as follows.
ConclusionWe hope from this article you learn PL/SQL blocks. From the above article, we have learned the basic syntax of block and we also see different examples of the block. From this article, we learned how and when we use PL/SQL blocks.
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How Does Nvl2 Work In Pl/Sql
Introduction to PL/SQL nvl2
In PL/SQL, nvl2() function is used to substitute the provided value or expression on the basis of null and not null value. It is basically an extension of the nvl() function of PL/SQL which takes 2 arguments. Function nvl2() takes 3 arguments, i.e. the original string or expression, other two being the substituted value based on the original string being null or not. Oracle provides the flexibility that the original string or expression can be of any data type and the substituted strings, i.e. other 2 arguments can also be of any data type except ‘LONG’. Oracle also performs specific actions if the 2 arguments except the original string are of different data type.
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Syntax:
NVL2 (expr1, expr2, expr3)Where,
expr1: It is the string or the expression which is to be tested in the function nvl2.
expr2: It is the value which is to be returned as a result of the function if the expr1 is not null.
expr3: It is the value which is to be returned as a result of the function if the expr1 is null.
Return Type:
Function NVL2 returns the substituted value based on the string or expression provided.
How does nvl2 Work in PL/SQL?Important points related to the working of nvl2 function in PL/SQL are given below:
1. Function nvl2 in PL/SQL extends the functionality of nvl function provided by Oracle.
2. Function nvl2 basically decides the value to be returned from the query based on the null and not null value.
3. It takes 3 parameters, first being the original string or expression, second being the substituted string if the provided expression is not null and third being the substituted string if the expression is null.
4. Original string ‘expr1’ can be of any data type.
5. Parameters ‘expr2’ and ‘expr3’ also can be of any data type except long.
6. In case when the ‘expr2’ and ‘expr3’ are of different data types:
If ‘expr2’ is of numeric data type, Oracle implicitly checks which argument is of high precedence data type and then converts either expr2 or expr3 to high precedence data type and returns that data type.
If ‘expr2’ is a character data type, Oracle before comparing, converts the ‘expr3’ to a data type of ‘expr2’ and returns the VARCHAR2 in character set of ‘expr2’. Conversion of data type does not takes place if ‘expr3’ is a null constant.
Following versions of Oracle PL/SQL supports the nvl2() function:
Oracle 12c
Oracle 11g
Oracle 10a
Oracle 9i
Oracle 8i
Examples of PL/SQL nvl2Given below are the examples mentioned:
Example #1Code:
SELECT NVL2(NULL, 10, 98) as New_value FROM dual;Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, 3 arguments are provided in the nvl2() function. The first argument is ‘NULL’ which is a null value. So, according to the nvl2() function property, it will return expr3 if the provided expression is NULL.
So, in the above function ‘expr3’ is ‘98’. Hence ‘98’ is printed in the column ‘new_value’ on the console to the user.
Example #2Code:
SELECT NVL2('hello', 10, 98) as New_value FROM dual;Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, 3 arguments are provided in the nvl2() function. The first argument is ‘hello’ which is a character data type and is not null. So, according to the nvl2() function property, it will return expr2 provided in the function which is ‘10’ in the above example.
Hence ‘10’ is printed in the column ‘new_value’ on the console to the user.
Example #3Code:
SELECT NVL2(100, 'hello', 'hi') as string_value FROM dual;Output:
In the above example, 3 arguments are provided in the nvl2() function. The first argument is 100 which is a numeric data type and is not null. So, according to the nvl2() function property, it will return expr2 provided in the function which is ‘hello’ in the above example.
Hence ‘hello’ is printed in the column ‘string_value’ on the console to the user.
Example #4Code:
SELECT NVL2('', 'this is not null value', 'this is a null value') as string_value FROM dual;Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, 3 arguments are provided in the nvl2() function. The first argument is the null value which is represented as blank brackets ‘ ‘. So, according to the nvl2() function property, it will return expr3 provided in the function if the expression ot the original string is null. So expr3 is ‘this is a null value’ in the above example.
Hence ‘this is a null value’ is printed in the column ‘string_value’ on the console to the user.
Example#5Code:
SELECT NVL2('hello hello', 'this is for not null value', '34') as string_value FROM dual;Output:
Explanation:
In the above example, 3 arguments are provided in the nvl2() function. The first argument is the ‘hello hello’ which is not a null value. As we can see above, that both the expr2 and expr3 are of different data types, so the Oracle performs the implicit conversions and according to that appropriate action would be taken. So, according to the nvl2() function property, it will return expr2 provided in the function if the expression ot the original string is not null. So expr2 is ‘this is for not null value’ in the above example.
Hence ‘this is for not null value’ is printed in the column ‘string_value’ on the console to the user.
ConclusionAbove description clearly explains what the nvl2 function is and how it works in a PL/SQL block. For a programmer, working on real databases, it is important to understand the concept of null and not null values and how to deal with them according to the resulting data from the tables in various situations clearly. Data represented to the user is according to the requirements of the user and showing null values is not an appropriate choice in many cases. So this function helps to deal with such situations.
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How Row_Number() Function Works In Redshift?
Introduction to Redshift ROW_NUMBER() Function
Redshift row_number() function usually assigns a row number to each row by means of the partition set and the order by clause specified in the statement. If the partitioned rows have the same values then the row number will be specified by order by clause.
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ROW_NUMBER() OVER ( [PARTITION BY column_partition_expression, ... ]
Here in the above syntax, we can say that based on the partition by expression the row sets are divided for the result set of the partition by expression the function will be applied.
Order by is used to logically sort order of the rows in each partition either in ascending or descending order.
Syntax:
ROW_NUMBER() OVER ( [PARTITION BY column_partition_expression, ... ]
Arguments of the above syntax:
( )
The function takes no arguments, but the empty parentheses are required.
OVER
The window clauses for the ROW_NUMBER function.
PARTITION BY partition_expression
It can be Optional. In ROW_NUMBER function One or more expressions can be defined in partition by.
ORDER BY sort_expression
It can be Optional. Order by uses the entire table if no partition by is specified.
How row_number() function work in Redshift?Let us create a table and apply the Rank function to see how its working:
);
Now let us insert few duplicated values as below and apply rank on it.
insert into row_number_function values ('Product 3', 40)
Now let us select the above table.
SELECT * FROM row_number_function;
The above statement returns all the values in the table.
In the output of the table row_number_function. Now let us apply the row_number() function on the “row_number_function“ table.
FROM row_number_function;
Screenshot for the same:
Now let us only apply only the order by on the “alphabet” column without any partition applied. Let us check the output and difference same.
FROM row_number_function;
Screenshot for the same:
In the above output as there is no partition by expression given. The row number will be given based on the order by expression.
FROM row_number_function;
Screenshot for the above statement output:
Now in the above output only the partition by has been applied on the basis of the column ‘sale_quantity’ the row number will be ascending order by default and consider the partition by expression.
ExampleNow let us consider a real-time example and apply the ROW_NUMBER function and check for the output:
Let us create the table “CUST_DATA” with columns cust_id, cust_name, cust_address, cust_phone, cust_salary as below:
cust_S int );
Let us insert few rows in the above table as below and apply the rank function:
select * from CUST_DATA;
Now let us apply row number function in the table “CUST_DATA”.
from CUST_DATA;
Output:
cust_id cust_n cust_a cust_p cust_s row_number_value
6 Bentley B Italy 7877845678 95090 1
9 Shames S London 0979809890 43768 1
4 Ben B London 8879812345 45098 2
1 Sam S USA 9987956479 45110 1
10 Harry H USA 9877890876 56789 2
10 Harry H USA 9877890876 56789 3
8 Sian S USA 6579899887 65345 4
8 Sian S USA 6579899887 65345 5
7 Sony S USA 8979800998 75123 6
3 Will W Germany 9679854678 85330 1
Screenshot is below:
Now let us apply row number function in the table “CUST_DATA” without any partition by.
from CUST_DATA;
Screenshot for the above output:
from CUST_DATA;
Here we have given only the partition by and not the order by. So the ordering will be done by default of the ascending of cust_address column.
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How Count Function Works In Sqlite?
Definition of SQLite COUNT Function
SQLite provides the various kinds of aggregation functions to the user and one of those aggregation functions is provided by the SQLite database. The SQLite count () function is an aggregate function that is used to fetch the total number of rows from the table by using the specified expression and conditions. Basically, the SQLite count () function has a capacity to work with nonnull numeric values, it is used to fetch the total of how many times column exits the nonnull values in the column and that is based on the specified expression. In SQLite count () function, if specified expression contains the asterisk character (*) at that time count () function fetch the number rows dependent on specified aggregate group or condition.
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Syntax:
select count (DISTINCT or all specified expression) from specified table name [WHERE specified condition] [GROUP BY specified expression];Explanation:
Specified Expression: Specified expression basically is nothing but the column or we can say expression and that can help us to determine how many non-null rows or values present in that table.
WHERE specified condition: Suppose we need to count how many rows are available in a specified table at that time we need to use the WHERE clause as per the requirement and it is an optional part of the syntax.
GROUP BY specified expression: Sometimes we need to find out how many rows are present in a specified table and that based on the expression at that we need to specify the GROUP BY clause and it is an optional part of the syntax.
Specified table name: It is an actual table that we need to fetch the records from the specified table.
How count function works in SQLite?Now let’s see how the count () function works in SQLite as follows.
Basically, the SQLite count () function is an aggregate function; it works with different arguments such as WHERE, DISTINCT, ALL, and GROUP BY clauses.
When we specify the ALL argument in the SQL statement that we return all non-null values including the duplicates values and it by default parameter of SQLite if we need skip then we can easily skip.
When we use DISTINCT in the SQL statement then it returns the only unique values with non-null values. The working SQLite count () function is simple and we use it as per the requirement with different parameters or we can say that argument.
ExamplesNow let’s see the different examples of SQLite count () function as follows. First, we need to create a table by using the following statement as follows.
create table emp (emp_id integer primary key. emp_first_name text, emp_last_name text, emp_salary numeric, emp_dept_id integer);Explanation
In the above example, we use create table statement to create a new table name as emp with different attributes with different data types such as emp_id is an integer data type with primary, emp_first_name, emp_last_name, emp_salary, and emp_dept_id as shown in the above statement. The end out of the above statement we illustrated by using the following screenshot.
Now insert some records by using the following statement as follows.
insert into emp(emp_id, emp_first_name, emp_last_name, emp_salary, emp_dept_id) values (1, "Sunny","Patel", 10000, 5), (2, "Jenny", "Sharma", 20000, 2), (3, "Johan", "Gupta", 25000, 2), (4, "Vinay", "Rana", 8500, 4);Explanation
select * from emp;Similarly, we created another table name as emp_dept as shown in the following screenshot as follows.
select * from emp_dept;Now we can use the SQLite count () function as follows.
If we need to count the total number of rows at that time we can use the following statement as follows.
select count (*) from emp;Explanation
In the above example, we use the SQLite count () function, it returns all rows from the table even if null values exist in the column. The end out of the above statement we illustrated by using the following screenshot.
Now let’s see an example of SQLite count () with a group by clause as follows.
select count (*), dn.emp_dept_name from emp et, emp_dept dn where et.emp_dept_id = dn.emp_dept_id group by et.emp_dept_id;Explanation
Now implement SQLite count () with distinct clauses as follows.
select dn.emp_dept_name, count (distinct et.emp_id) from emp et, emp_dept dn where et.emp_dept_id = dn.emp_dept_id group by et.emp_dept_id;Explanation
Basically distinct is used to retrieve the unique records from the table, similarly, in SQLite, we can use the distinct with count () function to fetch the unique records from the table. The end out of the above statement we illustrated by using the following screenshot.
Now let’s see the example of SQLite count function with where clause as follows.
select dn.emp_dept_name, count (et.emp_id) from emp et, emp_dept dn where et.emp_dept_id = dn.emp_dept_id and dn.emp_dept_name = 'COMP' group by et.emp_dept_id;Explanation
In SQLite, we can use where clause with count () function to fetch the rows from the specified table and that based on the expression. Suppose we need to find how many employees work in a particular department at that time we can use where by clause. The end out of the above statement we illustrated by using the following screenshot.
ConclusionWe hope from this article you have understood about the SQLite count () function. From the above article, we have learned the basic syntax of count () function and we also see different examples of count () function. We also learned the rules of count () function. From this article, we learned how and when we use SQLite count () function.
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How Timezone Function Works In Php
Introduction to PHP timezone
PHP timezone function is an inbuild function of PHP which is mostly used for setting up some default values with timezone that will be further used by all the functions related to date or time. There are some special characteristics about PHP timezone like the script in PHP timezone will return false in case timezone is not valid and it comes out to be true other way round. This function accepts single argument which is considered a mandatory argument and arguments more than one like multi-function argument is not a must for making PHP timezone working.
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Syntax
bool date_default_timezone_set( $timezone_id )The syntax flow is in way where the bool signifies the boolean value and the function passes some parameters like:
It is a must that this function will include single parameter like timezone_id which will be responsible for setting up the parameter with the required date or time inclined with UTC timings of ASIA or KOLKATA.
In case the function returns value as false then that timezone id will be invalid to consider and true otherwise.
How timezone Function works in PHP?Every function has a working pattern so do timezone function in PHP which functions in the following way:
timezone function is an inbuild function in PHP which is mostly used for setting the values with respect to the values given but still it needs some more setting and the patterns as per requirement.
Also, there are other methods with timezone including setting up the PHP timezone function with setTimeZone and getTimeZone.
Version compatibility in PHP also plays a pivotal role like it should be above 5 with its own pros and cons.
Date_timezone_set function is used exclusively for setting the timezone with Date Time Object which means it sets for the new DateTimeObject.
DateTime::setData function as part of Timezone function resets the current DateTime Object to a different date and time.
This timezone function involves usage of both date and time which means that the date used will be fetched from the date
Once this date or time function set up is done then the format for both the date and time function can be modified and can be made updated in different ways and format.
Also, the function depends on many local setups of the server with the daylight-saving time and leap years into consideration.
For setting up local server and the environment it is very much needed to make this PHP function as part of PHP pre-installation phase which means no third-party installation is required for making use of PHP functions.
This behavior of functions gets affected or changed whenever the function with chúng tôi is used for manipulation with the added aid of timezone.
timezone_abbreviations_list() function is mostly used for returning an associative array containing destination, offset, and any timezone name.
This function is used for accepting a single parameter for manipulation which involves timezone_identifier to make traversal within the function.
The return type is in boolean format with consideration of fact that it can be either true or false depending on the function requirement.
After PHP Version more than 5 which means PHP version with 5 and above will have calls made to date and time by generating E_NOTICE which is a kind of acknowledgement with the fact that the user is receiving a valid or true notice as a message.
If in case the end user receives or get some invalidated or false response as E_Warning then the system settings with the TZ environment variable will receive acknowledgment in warning format.
This is not the only option to make PHP timezone in working format rather an alternative to this procedure can be made with the INI default settings with time zone i.e. by setting the date time with date.timezone to set default timezone.
The timezone identifier plays an important role with the fact that timezone related to identifiers will be according to the locations and it can be in the form of UTC timing like Africa, Asia, Europe etc.
Versions with 5.1.2 supports for the function having validation for the timezoneID parameter whereas the version 5.3.0 supports for acknowledgement with E_Warning rather than E_strict statements.
Date_default_timezone_get() helps in getting the default timezone that will be aided with the date and time format present in the script.
Examples of PHP timezoneGiven below are the examples of PHP timezone:
Example #1This program demonstrates the way to represent default timezone to get the value set up with the default timezone according to India and USA as shown in the output.
Code:
<?php date_default_timezone_set(‘India/USA’); $sc_tz = date_default_timezone_get(); if (strcmp($sc_tz, ini_get(‘date.timezone’))) { echo ‘ini_timezone varies from the ini_timezone present in the script.’; } else { echo ‘Both the timezone including ini and script matches with each other.’; }
Output:
Example #2Code:
<?php $dt = new DateTime(‘2023-08-05’, new DateTimeZone(‘Europe/London’));
Output:
Example #3This program demonstrates the creation of date using date_create() function from abbreviation list to make the entire list of function working with the created date as shown in the output.
Code:
<?php $dt=date_create(); echo date_timestamp_get($dt);
Output:
Example #4This program demonstrates the date with timestamp to get created and then representing it as shown in the output.
Code:
<?php $dt=date_create(); date_timestamp_set($dt,12167845); echo date_format($dt,”U = Y-m-d H:i:s”);
Output:
ConclusionPHP timezone function is a very useful inbuild function related to time and date which is primarily used whenever the use requires to implement the functionality related to date and time. Also, the PHP timezone blends well once timezone is confirmed for affirmation and reflection in terms of setting and getting the time uniformly.
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How Autocorrelation Function Works In Matlab?
Definition of Matlab Autocorrelation
In Matlab, Autocorrelation function means a correlation between numbers in a set or series with other numbers in the same set or series separated by provided time interval. Autocorrelation is also called a serial correlation because it correlates numbers with a delayed copy of itself set or series. Autocorrelation is used in signal processing for analyzing a series of values like time-domain signals. Autocorrelation means the correlation between the observation at the current time spot and the observation at previous time spots. Autocorrelation is used to determine the terms used in the MA model. Autocorrelation is used to measure the relation between the elements’ current value and past values of the same element.
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How does Autocorrelation Function work in Matlab?Autocorrelation measures the relation between elements’ current value and past values of the same element. There are the following steps of autocorrelation function to work in Matlab: –
Step 1: Load and read all the data from the file.
Step 2: Assign all data to a variable.
Step 3: Then, use the appropriate syntax of the ‘Matlab Autocorrelation’ function.
Step 4: then execute the code.
Examples of Matlab AutocorrelationLets us discuss the examples of Matlab Autocorrelation.
Example #1In this example, we calculate the autocorrelation of random Gaussian noise in Matlab. We know that autocorrelation means matching signals with the delayed version itself. Now for random Gaussian noise, only when shift= 0 is there some autocorrelation value, and for all other cases, the autocorrelation result will be zero. Now first, we will generate random Gaussian noise in Matlab. For generating random Gaussian noise, we will use randn function in Matlab. “x= randn(1, length(t))” generates length t Gaussian sequence with mean 0 and variance 1. After that, we use the subplot and plot function to plot the random Gaussian noise signal. Here we will use the Matlab autocorrelation function to calculate the autocorrelation of random Gaussian noise in Matlab.“autocorr(x)” this syntax is used for calculating the autocorrelation of random Gaussian noise. Then subplot and plot function is used for plotting the autocorrelation of random Gaussian noise. To calculate the autocorrelation of a random Gaussian signal, execute the Matlab code.
Code :
Output:
Example #2In this example, we can see how we can find the periodicity of the signal using the function. So let’s first load the data. Here we use office temperature for data. This is, by default, available in Matlab. Once we load the data, we plot the data. We use a plot function to plot the data. After the plotting data, we will find the temperature oscillates. So we take the normal temperature by using mean temperature. “normal_temp= temp -mean(temp)” ones we subtract mean temperature from temperature, we get the normal temperature. After that, we will plot the normal temperature using the plot function. so we get normal temperatures varying around zero. Now we will set sampling ‘fs’ as 24. Then we are going to create a time vector t. The t will start from 0 and go up to the length of the normal temperature. Then we use Matlab autocorrelation to find the periodicity of the signal. Then we use above syntax “[autocor, lags]= xcorr (normal_temp,3*7*fs,’coeff’)”. Here ‘autocor’ variable stores the autocorrelation matrix, and ‘lags’ this variable stores the lags between the data. ‘xcorr’ correlates between normal temperature and sampling frequency. Then we plot the data that lag/fs, and autocor plot the autocorrelation of the signal.
Code:
plot(lags/fs,autocor);
Output:
Example #3In this example, we calculate the autocorrelation of the input sine signal. Now we load the signal in variable ‘x.’ “x= sin(2*t)” is used to get the sine signal in Matlab. After that, we use the subplot and plot function to plot the sine signal. Here we will use the function to calculate the autocorrelation of random Gaussian noise in Matlab.“autocorr(x)” this syntax is used for calculating the autocorrelation of sine signal. Then subplot and plot function is used for plotting the autocorrelation of the sine signal.
Code:
autocorr(x)
Output:
ConclusionIn this article, we saw the concept of Matlab autocorrelation. Basically, this function is used to measure the relation between elements’ current values and past values of the same element. Then we saw how we could find the periodicity of the signal using this function and the efficient work of the Matlab autocorrelation function.
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